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COURSE OF STUDY 



NATURE STUDY 



AND 



ELEMENTARY PHYSICS 



PRIMARY AND INTERMEDIATE GRADES 



PUBLIC SCHOOLS 



OF THE 



DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 









COURSE OF STUDY 



NATURE STUDY 



AND 



ELEMENTARY PHYSICS 



PRIMARY AND INTERMEDIATE GRADES 



PUBLIC SCHOOLS 



OF THE 



DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 



The Carnahan Press. 



OCT 27 1909 



^ 






V 






This course of study is the result of a revision and adapta- 
tion of the tentative course which has been in use in the 
elementary schools for the past two years. Acknowledgment 
is made of the services of the following" persons in this 
revision : S. E. Kramer, Elizabeth V. Brown, H. M. Johnson, 
Susan B. Sipe, Lulu A. McNally and Edna V. Riddleberger. 

A. T. Stuart, 
Superintendent of Schools. 
Washington, D- C, 
September I, 1909. 



OUTLINE OF NATURE STUDY 

FOR 

PRIMARY GRADES. 



FIRST GRADE. 
FIRST TERM. 

ANIMALS 

Pets : pigeon, canary, cat, dog. 
Domestic Animals : cow, horse, sheep. 
Aquarium : observation and care. 

COMMON FALL FLOWERS 

Golden rod and aster, sunflower, morning glory. 
Simple plant study— root, stem, leaves, flowers. 

FRUITS 

apple, grape, pumpkin, nuts. 

SEEDS 

flying seeds : milkweed and dandelion. 

LEAVES 

Study of form and color. 

TREES 

Simple study of neighborhood tree ; the Christmas tree. 



SEASONS' 

Autumn, Winter : months in each season : observation of 
daily phenomena in autumn and winter ; keeping of 
calendar ; migration of birds. 

GARDEN 

See garden outline. 

SECOND TERM. 

ANIMALS 

squirrel, rabbit, mouse. 
SIGNS OF SPRING 

observation and discussion. 
BIRDS 

hen, duck, robin, bluebird. 

TREE 

Continue observation of neighborhood tree — watch swell- 
ing and development of buds. 

COMMON SPRING FLOWERS 

violet, dandelion, daisy, buttercup. 
FRUIT BLOSSOMS 

apple, peach, cherry. 
SEASONS 

Spring, summer ; months in each season, observation of 
daily phenomena ; keeping of calendar ; return of birds. 

GARDEN 

See garden outline. 



SECOND GRADE. 
FIRST TERM. 

SEASONAL WORK 

Autumn, winter. General observation of season's changes 
in weather, length of days, habits of animals, plants and 
people. 

FALL FLOWERS 

Common garden flowers : purple flowering bean, scarlet 
runner, cosmos, nasturtium. 

FRUIT 

cranberry (in connection with Thanksgiving). 

SEEDS 

Tramp seeds, cockle bur, burdock, stick-tight, (review fly- 
ing seeds). 

BIRDS 

turkey, meadow lark, cardinal. 

TREES 

Recognition of a few common trees ; oak, elm, maple. 
Particular observation of neighborhood tree. 
Simple study of pine tree. 
Study of the grasshopper. 
Animals and plants of special importance in life of primitive 
people as Indians, Eskimos, Shepherds. 
Indian corn 
sheep 
camel 
polar bear 
Eskimo dog 



GARDEN 

See garden outline. 

SECOND TERM. 

SEASONAL WORK 

Spring, summer. Signs of spring; awakening of nature, 
return of birds, swelling of buds, changes in neighborhood 
tree. 

ANIMALS 

snail, turtle, frogs. 
INSECTS 

wasps. 
BIRDS 

crow, sparrow. Recognition of birds common to locality. 
COMMON SPRING FLOWERS 

Study bluet, Jack-in-the-pulpit. 

BUDS 

pussy willow, poplar, horse chestnut.. 

SEEDLING 

bean. 
Plant and animal life related to the study of Robinson Crusoe. 
Seasons on the island. 
Comparison with our garden. 
Study goat. 



THIRD GRADE. 
FIRST TERM. 

LIFE OF THE SEA 

Use when possible the child's vacation experiences, 
shells, coral, sponge. 

STUDY OF VINES 

, Using Virginia creeper, ivy, grape, clematis, and morning 
glory as types. Children should be taught to recognize 
poison ivy, and warned of its dangers. 

STUDY OF THERMOMETER 

Weather observation, winds, clouds, sunshine. Effect of 
temperature, seasonal variations noted ; reasons. 

TREES 

Recognition of a few common trees by leaf and general 
characteristics ; maple, oak, elm, poplar, horse-chestnut. 
In connection with Christmas study pine and fir. 

DISSEMINATION OF SEEDS 

Why seeds travel — agencies. 

Children make collection of various kinds of seeds. 

CATERPILLARS 

Children should bring collections of cocoons into school- 
rooms. 

BIRDS 

homes, habits, adaptation of parts, hawks, owl, heron, sand- 
piper, king-fisher. 



10 

ANIMALS 

beaver, fox. 
Continue observation of seasonal changes, correlate with 
geography work in zones, climatic belt, etc. 

SECOND TERM. 

BIRDS IN WINTER 

Protection and development. 

PLANTS 

Study a few plants to give children idea how the world 
supplies our simplest needs — sugar, tea, rice, cotton, flax. 

GERMINATION OF SEEDS 

pea,, bean, squash. 
BIRDS 

flicker, red-headed woodpecker, oriole. 
TOAD 

Life history of the toad, and his work in the garden. 

INSECTS 

spiders, ants, crickets, bees. 

FLOWERS 

Recognition of common spring flowers ; clover study. 
The study of clover in relation to the life of the bee. 
Continue seasonal work. Children observe signs of spring in 
awakening of all nature. 



FOURTH GRADE. 
FIRST TERM. 

FLOWERS 

wild carrot, zinnia. 
BEETLES 

potato bug, lady-bug, fire-fly. 
MOTHS and butterflies in general. 
FLESHY ROOTS 

turnip, carrot, radish. 

TREEb 

Recognition of common trees by leaf and general charac- 
teristics, maple, oak, elm, poplar, sycamore, horse-chestnut, 
linden, locust. 

In connection with Christmas ; fir, spruce, hemlock. 
Study mistletoe and holly. 

GRAINS 

corn, wheat, oats; by-products of each, methods of mill- 
ing, etc. 

SHELL FISH 

Study of clam and oyster. 
BIRDS 

snowbird, chick-a-dee. 

GARDEN 

See garden outline. 

Seasonal changes noted in migration of birds; formation 

of winter buds. Keeping of simple weather moods, includ- 



12 

ing temperature, direction of wind and varying length of 
night and day. 

SPECIAL TOPIC FOR GRADE 4A. 

Work of water ; evaporation and condensation ; forms of 
water ; water dust, fog, mist, clouds, frost, ice, snow, dew, 
rain. Work of water in soil making and in shaping the 
land. 

SECOND TERM. 

PLANTS 

sugar maple, Georgia pine, cocoanut, rubber tree, by- 
products of each, methods of manufacture, etc. 
Study earthworm and mole in relation to garden. 

TWIGS 

lilac, horse chestnut, poplar, willow, alder, maple, forsythia ; 
fruit buds. Children watch development of buds in class- 
room for comparison. 

BIRDS 

Recognition of birds common to locality. 
Study purple grackle, thrush, song sparrow. 

INSECTS 

Study house fly. In this connection study other household 
pests as roaches, mosquitoes, bed bugs, moths, etc., to im 
press lessons of sanitation. 

FLOWERS 

Common spring flowers of country and city parks. Recog- 
nition of those brought into classroom. Study several. 
Seasonal changes noted. 

GARDEN 

See garden outline. 



Garden Outline. 



FIRST GRADE. 
FIRST TERM. 

Shortly after opening of school familiarize the children with 
the garden. Teach how and by whom it has been planted and 
cared for; the part each grade has in it and the necessity for 
the newcomers to be careful of the rights of others. First 
grade children are not too young to understand property rights. 
Extend this to the protection of adjacent private yards. 

Language lessons on the beauty of the garden and its value 
in neighborhood improvement. Correlate color work by find- 
ing all the red flowers, the yellow ones, etc. Teach names of 
three of the commonest plants. Classify plants in garden as 
vines, shrubs and low growing plants. Note that there are 
fruits in the garden. 

Bulb planting: 

Outdoors — 

Observe preparation of soil by older pupils; names of 
tools : spade, rake, trowel, garden line. Individual planting of 
bulbs in conformity with scheme of building planting ; covering 
the bed for the winter with stable manure. 

Indoors — 

To have succession of bloom, plant bulbs at intervals of 
two weeks either in soil, manure and sphagnum or stones and 
water. No detailed study of the bulb should be given in this 
grade. Note the beauty and fragrance of flowers when they 
appear. Children should be given entire charge of bulbs and 
potted plants. Under guidance they should water the plants 
and keep leaves clean. 



14 

SECOND TERM. 

Germination work in this grade should be conducted wholly 
by observation and informal talks on the changes involved, 
omitting formal study as conducted in the past. It should bear 
on the outdoor work, the grade garden and the home garden. 
Prepare soil for box which is to be used as miniature garden. 
Plant varieties of seeds that have been purchased by the children 
for their home gardens. Plant in rows, labeling each row to 
aid in identification of the seedlings. Base simple language 
lessons on observations made, leading children to discover that 
the plant comes from the seed; some bring the seedcoat above 
ground, others do not ; some have one leaf at first, others 
two, etc. 

Grade assignment for school garden : 

Nasturtium and choice of scarlet runner and purple flower- 
ing bean. One half of school may plant nasturtium, the other 
half the bean, if so desired. Start seeds early indoors for trans- 
planting to garden when season permits. An earlier and more 
orderly garden is thus obtained. 

During the interval between planting indoors and transplant- 
ing to garden, emphasize the preparation of the home plot by 
the children, withholding from pupils the seeds purchased until 
weather permits and the ground is prepared. Perform the 
following experiments : 

I. Plant seeds of the same kind in each of three pots. Place 
No. i in the cold. Do not water No. 2. Give No. 3 normal 
conditions. Cover several of the same kind of seed with a half 
inch coat of clay. Plant in same manner as the rest and treat 
as No. 3. Conclusion : — Seeds need water, heat and air. 

II. Plant small seeds, radish, at different depths in a five- 
inch pot, labeling the depth of each. Plant large seeds in same 
manner. Conclusion: — Large seeds should be planted deeper 
than small ones. Seeds may be planted so deep they will never 
come up. 



15 

III. Two growing plants, geraniums, for example, in which 
the earth is of equal dryness at the beginning of the experiment. 
Sprinkle one plant with a watering pot as a child is apt to do. 
Pour water carefully around the roots of the other. After the 
water has entered the soil, take both plants from the pots and 
note the depth to which the water has penetrated. Conclu- 
sion : — One thorough watering at the roots is much better than 
several sprinklings. 

Systematic watering, weeding and cultivating of the grade 
garden. Teachers and pupils should have the same pride in 
an orderly garden that they do in a well-kept schoolroom. 
Emphasize same for home gardens. 

Complete work of the fall with bulbs by language lessons on 
the plants in bloom and later care of bulbs. 



SECOND GRADE. 
FIRST TERM. 

Follow instructions given under first grade for ethical train- 
ing. Be persistent in this teaching throughout the year, in- 
cluding the school yard and the yards in the neighborhood. 

Visit the grade garden planted by children the previous 
spring. Put it in good order, training the vines, weeding, etc. 
Note the effect of the summer on the beans and nasturtiums ; 
the insects that have been destructive ; the weeds that grow in 
this section of the garden. Teach ragweed and plantain. 

Complete the cycle of nasturtium and bean from the plant- 
ing in the spring to the fruit in the fall. Throughout the fall 
have flowers from grade garden picked. Direct arrangement 
of them in bouquets to cultivate artistic sense. Collect nastur- 
tiums and bean seeds. Preserve seeds until spring for the first 
grade or to be" taken home for the home garden. 

Bulb planting: 

See directions for first grade. Encourage home planting 
of bulbs, noting caution given under seed planting in first 
grade, that the ground must be prepared before the bulbs are 
taken home. This avoids much waste of material. Make paper 
cutting of tools used and the activities of planting. Stories of 
Holland, the land of the bulbs. Care of window plants and 
bulbs during the winter. 

SECOND TERM. 

Review experiments of first grade to emphasize principles 
of plant growth. 

Bean and squash for germination study. Children of this 
grade are capable of more detailed germination lessons. 



17 

Grade assignment for school garden : 

Balloon vine, and either four o'clock or petunia. Start 
seeds indoors for transplanting to garden when season permits. 
Emphasize preparation of soil and the need of fertilizer. Re- 
view weeds of first grade. Add purslane, dandelion and 
pepper grass. Relate surface measurement work to weeding 
the school lawn. 

Complete bulb work of fall with lessons on the blooming 
plants ; care of bulbs. 

Home Gardens. 



THIRD GRADE. 
FIRST TERM. 

Visit second grade garden shortly after opening of school to 
note the effect of the summer. Train vines and weed garden. 
Make collection of weeds, gathering entire plant root, stem, 
leaves, flowers, fruit. Dry for review ; note adaptations for 
dissemination and struggle for life. 

Review planting of seeds in the spring and complete the cycle 
of the balloon vine and other seed planted. Collect, label and 
preserve seeds for next year for second grade. 

Teach incidentally petals, calyx or cup ; rub pollen on fingers ; 
taste nectar in spurred flower, such as nasturtium or honey- 
suckle. Do not teach pollination. 

Bulb planting outdoors and for indoor forcing. Encourage 
home planting, noting directions under second grade. 

Window culture : 

Cuttings of geranium, petunia, wandering Jew, rooted 
in sand to be transplanted to window box. Care of potted 
plants and boxes under teacher's guidance throughout the year. 

Soils: 

Clay, sand, loam, wood's earth or leaf mold. Qualities 
easily observed in each. 

SECOND TERM. 

Cuttings from geraniums, petunia or wandering Jew rooted 
in sand, to be transplanted to garden in season. 

Germination study : 

Pea, bean, squash studied by comparison. Bring plants 
to maturity, showing purpose of flower to produce seed. 



19 

Grade assignment for school garden : 

Marigold or zinnia. Plant early in boxes indoors for 
transplanting in season. 

Review principles of plant culture taught by experiment in 
the second and third grades. Plant seedlings in clay, sand, 
soil from garden, soil from garden mixing one-third manure. 
Make application of results to school and home gardens. 

Soil worker — Ant. 

The gardener's aid — Toad. 

Review parts of flower teaching terms, corolla, calyx, 
stamens, pistil, using fruit blossoms or sweet peas. Bees as 
pollen gatherers. 

Weeds : 

Children should be thoroughly acquainted with rag weed, 
lamb's quarter, curly dock, plantain, purslane, pepper grass, 
dandelion. 



FOURTH GRADE. 

Fall. 

Visit garden and perform necessary work as directed under 
first and second grades. Emphasize protection of school and 
neighborhood gardens. Garden in its relation to civic improve- 
ment. Arrange bouquets of garden and wild flowers for the 
schoolroom. Study vines of the garden : their methods of 
climbing, comparative value as fence and wall covers. Collect 
seeds, label and preserve for the grade below. 

Review parts of flower, discussing simply the necessity for 
pollination. Complete cycle of marigold or zinnia planted by 
children in the spring. Teach that they are collections of many 
little flowers. Find other flowers, wild ones especially, like 
them — (aster, goldenrod, dandelion and all members of a com- 
posite family). 

Pot plants from the garden for the school room. (This 
necessitates a knowledge on the part of the teacher of potting 
soils and method of potting.) Bulb planting outdoors and for 
indoor forcing. 

Soils : 

Experiments : 

I. Page 382 in Nature Study and Life, by Hodge — Use 
instead of soils suggested in this experiment, clay, sand, clay 
and manure or leaf mold, sand and manure or leaf mold. Note 
the effect upon the water retaining power of soils of mixing 
manure or leaf mold with heavy or light soils. 

II. Two flower pots of moist soil filled to within one 
inch of top. Pack surface firmly ; keep top soil of other loose 
for a half inch in depth. Weigh from day to day. Note the 
effect of keeping top soil loose upon the amount of water held 
in the soil. 

Watch the action of ice and frost on soil. 



21 

Food storage: 

Carrot, radish, turnip, tulip or hyacinth bulb. Plant 
carrot or turnip in schoolroom toward spring to note its 
development the second year. 

Spring. 

. Soil workers : 

Earth worm, mole. 

Germination : 

Pea, bean and morning glory by comparison, emphasiz- 
ing stored food and its location. 

Grade assignment for garden : 

Scarlet sage. Plant early in boxes indoors for trans- 
planting to garden later. 

Cuttings : 

Root cuttings of willow, forsythia or ivy in sand, either 
for the school or home garden. 

Simple experiments to observe the relation of light to 
plants. Note the effect upon the size of the plant and its color. 
Apply to selection of desirable places for planting. 

Home Garden. 



OUTLINE OF NATURE STUDY 

FOR 

INTERMEDIATE GRADES. 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 



If careful attention is paid to material it will not be difficult 
to cover the ground of the following course of study in the 
time assigned. Material should be present for daily observa- 
tion and always in good condition. The weekly assignment of 
time should be devoted to inferences and classification by chil- 
dren. Children should be guided along right lines of observa- 
tion. There is no subject better adapted to development of in- 
dependent thinking than nature study. The presence of 
material is, however, an absolute requisite for thought 
development. It is better to omit the work entirely than 
to teach without material. Endeavor to make the school garden 
furnish much of the nature material. A grade assignment for 
planting has been given for spring, and the teacher of the grade 
to which the children are promoted in the fall will complete 
the life cycle of the plant. This assignment in no way inter- 
feres with the school garden. Conferences between teachers 
and principals of buildings will result in well planned garden 
and an abundance of material. Real carefully Part I, Nature 
Study, F. L. Holtz, paying especial attention to Chaps. 4 and 5. 



FIFTH GRADE. 



Immediately after the opening of school visit the school gar- 
den to note the effect of the summer on the part planted by the 
children the previous spring. Train vines, weed and put in 
order. This should lead to talk on civic improvement, property 
rights. 

Complete life cycle of seeds planted by children in the spring, 
collecting the seeds to be passed to the grade below for use in 
the spring. 

WEEDS 

Review those taught in 3d and 4th grades. 

(1) Teach cocklebur, burdock, amaranth. 

(2) Life cycle of the dandelion. 

Note adaptation of all parts to the plant's struggle 
for existence in its environment. 

Encourage children to make independent observations 
of the adaptations of other weeds. Collections of weeds 
will aid them in such study and serve for review. The 
entire plant should be taken for such specimens. 

References. 

(1) U. S. Dept. of Agriculture — Weeds and How to Kill 

Them, L. H. Dewey. 
Weeds of Our Cities, L 
H. Dewey. 

(2) Nature Study and the Child. C. B. Scott. 



VINES 



Review those taught in 3d and 4th grades and familiarize 
children with all the vines of the school garden. They 
should know at least ten common vines by name and the 



24 

practical value of each around the home or school, to- 
gether with the following : 

Methods of climbing used to reach the light. 
Position of leaves in relation to light. 
Modes of propagation of vines. 
Means of dissemination of fruit. 

References — Lessons with Plants — L. H. Bailey. 
Plant Relations — Coulter. 
Garden Making — L. H. Bailey. 
TREES 

( i ) Review identification of trees taught in grade below. 

(2) Note changes throughout the year in trees taught. 

v3) Teach white, Carolina, and Lombardy poplar; charac- 
teristics ; uses of poplar wood ; advantages and dis- 
advantages as city shade trees. 

References — 

Our Native Trees — Harriet Keeler. 
Among Green Trees — Julia E. Rogers. 

LEAVES 

Functions (not in detail). 
Parts and structure (not minute). 
Shapes. 

Arrangement for light relations. 

Compare arrangement and shapes on different vines, 
weeds and trees. 

INSECTS 

(None of this work should be done in detail. Daily 
observations of the changes that take place will suffice 
to arouse interest in the subject. Teach children to 
be careful to feed the insects brought in with leaves 
from the plants on which they were found.) 



25 

Life history of butterfly and moth. 

Collect caterpillars of milkweed, cabbage butterflies ; 
of cecropia or ailanthus moth. Observe spinning of 
cocoons. Put cocoons away until spring. In spring 
when the butterflies and moths emerge note differences 
between them. 

Observations of the outdoor habits of grasshoppers, 
locusts, crickets, beetles, spiders. Cage some and feed 
them. Make observations of structure and habits 
Note similarities and differences. 

References — 

Comstock — Manual of Insects. 
Holland— The Moth Book. 
Holland— The Butterfly Book. 
Emerton — Common Spiders. 
Hodge — Nature Study and Life. 

BULB PLANTING 

Individual planting in school garden. Group planting 
for winter blooming indoors. 

References — 

Garden Magazine. 
Holtz — Nature Study. 

CARE OF INDOOR PLANTS 

Children should be given complete charge of window 
plants. Teach proper potting, watering and cleanliness 
of plants. Encourage this work at home. Discuss with 
the children artistic appearance of house plants. 

References — 

House Plants — Hillhouse. 

Miniature and Window Gardening — Allen and 
Godfrey. 



26 

Spring. 



TREES 



Force the growth of branches of the trees assigned 
for grade study. Study catkins of the poplar by com- 
parison with willow catkins. Discuss wind pollination. 
Note the opening of the leaf buds. Review spring con- 
ditions of all trees taught in lower grades. 



BIRD STUDY 



Note return of birds— List birds in nearby park or 
around school if in suburbs. Make individual assign 
ments of birds such as — English sparrow, grackle, robin. 
Carry such observations on until end of school. Where 
it is advisable make bird houses. 

References — 

Chapman's Birds of N. E. America. 
Blanchan — Bird Neighbors. 

Game Birds. 

How to Attract Birds. 
Maynard — Birds of the District of Columbia. 



GERMINATION 



Study ways different seeds germinate. Germinate 
them on blotting paper, in sawdust, under glass or in 
soil. Use pea, squash, lima bean, onion, four o'clock, 
corn, sunflower, radish. Note seed leaves of the grow- 
ing seedlings. Cut them from a bean seedling. Note 
result. Infer that they are the storehouse of food for 
the seedling. Note the root hairs or absorption roots. 
It is well to use the seeds bought by the children for 
home gardens, so they may have some idea of their 
vitality and be able to recognize the seedlings as they 
appear. 



27 

FLOWER STUDY 

Material suitable — fruit blossoms. 

Parts of a flower ; value of each part in the life history 
of the plant; similarities and differences between peach 
and plum ; apple and pear. 

Carefully bring out the necessity for pollination. 
Insects as friends to flowers. Flower devices for attract- 
ing them. 

Wild flowers. 

Keep wild flower calendar. Encourage preservation 
of the wild flowers. 

GARDEN WORK 

Propagation of plants by cuttings. Geraniums that 
have been in the house all winter, chrysanthemums just 
beginning to sprout ; coleus, ivy, are all suitable for such 
work. 

Root in box of sand in schoolroom. Transplant to 
garden or home when rooted. 

Grade assignment — 

China pink or nasturtium. 

Scarlet runner or purple flowering bean. 

Sow seeds early indoors. A more orderly garden is 
thus obtained and much time gained. Transplant to 
garden when weather permits. 

Encourage home gardens. 



SIXTH GRADE. 

Fall. 

Teachers should familiarize themselves with the work of the 
grades below and should keep such information in constant 
review. The first work of the grade should be a visit to the 
garden planted by the children the previous spring. Follow 
instructions given to fifth grade teachers. Complete life cycle 
of China pink and scarlet runner, the seeds of which were 
planted by children in the fifth grade. While doing so review 
the parts of a flower, pollination, insect and flower relations. 

SEED DISPERSAL 

Collect fruits and seeds of all kinds. 

Differentiate between fruit and seeds. 

Classify according to agents of dispersal. 

Why fruits are furnished with sweetness, odor, and color. 

Encourage independent observations of seed dispersal, using 
notebooks and drawings to fix forms vividly in mind, not 
so much for class work as for independent outside work. 

References — 

Seed Travelers — C. M. Weed. 
Lessons in Botany — L. H. Bailey. 
Seed Dispersal — Beal. 

TREES 

Review trees taught in grades below. 
Teach maples. 

Characteristics of all maples. 

Distinguish by shape of tree, leaves, buds, fruit, flowers in 
the spring, the silver maple, red, sugar, sycamore, ash- 
leaved and Norway maples. 
Value of wood ; as shade trees. 



2 9 

INSECTS 

Household insects emphasizing sanitary conditions necessary 
to prevent house fly and mosquito. 
Hodge — Nature Study and Life. 

BULB PLANTING 

Read and follow directions given to 5th grade. 

INDOOR PLANTS 

Read and follow directions given to 5th grade. 

SOIL STUDY 

Begin a mineral collection. Collect pebbles. Why are they 
round? What is soil? How is it made? Treat broadly 
the agents active in soil formation following suggestions 
in Principles of Agriculture, Chap. I, L. H. Bailey. 
Learn to recognize typical granite, limestone, sandstone, 
shale and gneiss. Make simple observations of granite. 
Note bleached appearance on outside as compared with 
freshly broken pieces. Note evidences of action of weather. 
(Note: — There are many places along Rock Creek and 
Broad Branch where every stage of the granitic disintegra- 
tion may be obtained from the solid rock to the powdered 
soil. This may be sifted by the children to show the dif- 
ferent stages. The pebbles afford opportunity to compare 
those formed by weather action with water worn ones.) 
What are the forces of weathering? Show composite 
nature of granite (quartz, mica, feldspar). Clay comes 
from feldspar, sand from quartz. Composition of garden 
loam. (Clay, sand and humus.) Is the school soil a 
sandy loam or a clay loam? Following experiment in 
Hodge, page 382, add sand to a handful of the school 
yard soil. Add clay. Add manure. What is the effect 
upon the water holding power of the soil? Value of 
mulching the soil. Is the school ya,rd soil acid? Test with 



3Q 

litmus paper. Effect of lime on the sdil. Proper method 
of watering plants. Value of the earth worm. 

References — 

Hodge— Nature Study and Life, Chap. 23. 
Gage — The Great World's Farm. 
King — The Soil. 
Goodrich — First Book of Farming. 

Spring. 

This work should be done wholly by experiments. As ex- 
periments require time they should be started the last of Feb- 
ruary or early March so that the lessons learned may be of 
value to the spring garden. 

PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH 

I. Absorptive power of roots. 

Fill a small vial to brim with water, and another with 
sugar and water. Cover tightly with a piece of 
bladder or parchment. Put the one containing 
water into a glass filled with sugar and water ; the 
one containing sugar and water into a glass of 
water. This is an excellent illustration of osmosis. 
The principle upon which it works is explained in 
any good botany or physics and shows well how the 
root tip absorbs water. 
Lessons to be learned — Plants must not be given food 
that is too strong. Weeds and grass may be killed 
by such method but care should be taken in doing 
so or the effect will be such as results when the 
salt water from an ice cream freezer touches the 
grass. 

II. Transpiration from leaves. 

Simple experiment illustrated in Coulter. 



3i 

III. Observe sap in stem. Talk of the same rising in the 

trees due partly to transpi'ration and osmosis. 

IV. Grow plants in dark to show their light relations. 

V. Test for starch in green parts of leaf. Use variegated 
leaves. Test plants grown in dark for same. Simple 
directions given in Coulter's and Bailey's botanies. 
Emphasize the value of the leaf as a starch former. 
Without leaves the ordinary plant would starve. 

VI. By simple experiments show that both animals and 
plants throw off C 2 as a waste product. Dispel the 
theory that plants are harmful in a sleeping room from 
giving off C O a . 

VII. Perform simple experiments to show the properties of 
oxygen and CO,. Need of oxygen for combustion 
and oxidation. Effect of C 2 on flame ; on life. Test 
C 2 with lime water. Test breath for C 2 . Con- 
nect with physiology. 

If this work is done wholly by experiment it is not too 
difficult for a sixth grade pupil. The caution must be . 
given not to make it too technical. 

References — 

Plant and Animal Life — Snyder. 

Coulter's — Plants. 

McDougal — Plant Physiology. 

Bulletin 195, O. E. S.— U. S. Dept. of Agri- 
culture, Simple Experiments in Agricultural 
Chemistry. 

Soule and Turpin — Agriculture. 

TREES 

Force branches of trees assigned for grade study. Note their 
flowering and spring condition. 



32 

BIRDS 

Follow suggestions given under 5th grade, making individ- 
ual assignments different from those of the year before. 
Song sparrow, red eyed vireo, yellow warbler, catbird, 
are found throughout the city now and are excellent for 
observation. 

WILD FLOWERS 

Keep calendar of flowers as they appear. Encourage 
preservation of wild flowers. 



GARDEN WORr 



\ 



Propagation of plants by division. Chrysanthemums, gol- 
den glow, and phlox are excellent for such lessons. Other 
plants will be found in the school yards that will be much 
improved by separation. Take advantage of such to teach 
the subject, transplanting in an orderly way. If there is 
material left give it to the children for home planting. 
Boston ferns and aspidistras that have been growing in 
the rooms all winter need separation in the spring. Let 
children do the work. 

GRADE ASSIGNMENT IN GARDEN 

Scarlet sage or balsam. 
Cypress vine. 

Find place in the garden to plant several grains of corn 
for the fall work of the 7th grade. 

HOME GARDEN 

Encourage the planting of vines. 



SEVENTH GRADE. 

Fall. 

Read and follow instructions given to fifth and sixth grade 
teachers in reference to an immediate visit to the portion of the 
garden planted by the children the previous spring. 

Complete life cycle of at least one of the plants planted by the 
children in the spring, reviewing the parts of the flower 
pollination and the relation of flowers and insects taught in fifth 
grade. The cypress will afford the opportunity to review the 
subject of vines and the balsam the subject of seed dissemina- 
tion. 

TREES 

Review the identification of trees taught in grades below. 

Teach oaks, classify them into groups of black and white 
oaks, using for such classification the difference in lobes 
of leaves and position of acorns. There are too many 
varieties of oaks in this locality to do this work otherwise 
than very broadly. Children should know pin oak, white 
oak, and red oak as they are planted on many of the city 
streets. Leaf fall — reasons for ; preparation ; cause of 
fall coloration. 

List trees acording to fall colors. 

Observe the presence of buds for the coming spring. 

Study the life of a tree, applying principles of absorption, 
transpiration, flow of sap, light relation, starch formation, 
flowering, pollination, fruit, seed dispersal, yearly growth 
of stem, twigs, winter buds, enemies, fungus, insects, 
parasitic growths, etc. It is suggested that one tree should 
be studied, allowing the study to extend throughout the 
year and making use of the work taught in lower grades. 

Reference — 

Among Green Trees — J. E. Rogers. 



34 

GRAINS 

Connect this work with the lessons in cooking. 

Familiarize children with stalks of wheat, rye, oats, Study 
corn in detail. Where practical the sixth grades planted a 
small quantity of corn. Use the growing corn for the fol- 
lowing work. If there is none in the school garden, a few 
stalks may be procured from the country. 

CORN PLANT 

Study each part in the relation to its life struggles for 
existence. 

Roots- — fibrous and brace. 

Stalk — strength in cylindrical stem ; value of pith ; how the 
stalk lifts itself after a storm. 

Leaves Blade — veining a protection against storms ; full- 
ness of edge ; "curling" of the corn leaves. 

Sheath — additional protection to leaves ; rainguard and its 
value to the sheath. 

Flowers — Tassel and ear flower ; the wind a pollen carrier. 

Uses of the various parts of the plant to man and animals. 
Relate to commercial geography, developing corn in- 
dustries and centers of such trade. 

Reference — 

Sargent — Corn Plants. 

INSECTS* 

Relation between insects and flowers; mutual benefits, our 
benefit. Special attention in this grade to the bee. Begin 
early in the fall to make insect collections, grouping them 
according to those that eat vegetables ; that require shade 
trees ; that are beneficial. Within the year try to complete 
life history sets of the same to be kept in school. Carefully 



*May be omitted if time allowance is not sufficient for entire amount 
of work outlined. 



35 

regulate the collecting. Make application to school garden 
wherever the opportunity arises. Insecticides — their pre- 
paration, application and effect. 

References — 

F. L. Holtz— Nature Study. 
Hodge — Nature Study and Life. 
Morley — Bee People. 

" — Butterflies and Bees. 

BULB PLANTING 

Refer to 5th grade for work to be done and references. 
INDOOR PLANTS 

Refer to 5th grade for work and references. 
WINDOW BOX GARDENS 

Make the window box the specialty of the grade. The plant- 
ing may be done in the fall using the box for indoor 
decoration during the winter, or in the spring using it for 
outdoor decoration. The box should be neat, devoid of 
printing or signs, preferably painted green and thoroughly 
drained. Children should be familiar with every step of 
the work and should be encouraged to repeat the opera- 
tion at home. The best information for material suitable 
can be gotten from publication by Dept. of Agriculture, 
Miniature and Window Gardening, Godfrey and Allen, 
Nature Study, Holtz. 

Spring. 

STORAGE OF FOODS 

Connect with work of the cooking school. 
Review starch text given in 6th grade. 



36 

Test corn for the presence of starch. 

Plant turnip and allow to flower. Note condition of turnip. 

Plant a few radish seed and allow to go to seed. 
Grow corn and lima beans in lamp chimneys as in the lower 
grades. Note how seed leaves shrivel as the seedlings ad- 
vance in size. Cut seed leaves from several beans when 
they are just above the ground and observe the effect. Dig 
up a kernel of corn just beginning to send its seed leaves 
above ground and note that it is soft. Soak some corn, 
cut away most of the food supply without injuring the 
germ. Plant and observe the results. Study benefits 
derived from plants by storing food. Study different 
methods of storing: 

in roots — radish, turnip. 

in stem — potato, cabbage, cactus, kohlrabi. 

in bulbs — tulip, hyacinth, onion. 

in corms — crocus. 

in seeds. 

TREES 

Force branches of trees assigned for grade study. Oaks are 
somewhat difficult to force. Bring in branches rather late. 
Note flowering and delicate coloring of young leaves. 
Teach American elm. 

BIRDS 

Review all birds previously studied. Keep bird calendar. 
Note nesting, song, food, care of young and other points 
of interest. List useful and harmful birds. 

WILD FLOWERS 

Keep calendar of flowers. Encourage preservation of wild 
flowers. 

GARDEN 

Propagation of plants by buds. Cannas are the best 



37 

material for this though potatoes illustrate the method too. 
If a beginning is made with a few canna roots, a large 
quantity of material will be on hand in a few years. 

GRADE ASSIGNMENT 

Centaurea, cosmos, zinnia or marigolds. 



EIGHTH GRADE. 

Fall. 

Read and follow instructions given to fifth and sixth grade 
teachers in reference to an early visit to the garden to study the 
effect of the summer upon it and to put it in order. 

Complete life cycle of the seeds planted by the children when 
in seventh grade. All members of the seventh grade assign- 
ment are composites. Children should understand meaning of 
composite flower; its value in furthering pollination and seed 
dispersal. 

TREES 

Review for identification all trees taught in grades below. 
Pupils leaving the eighth grade should know the common 
shade trees of the city by shape in summer and winter ; 
their winter buds ; the shape of the leaves ; their insect 
enemies and methods of abating such ; precautions neces- 
sary in pruning trees ; tree ordinances peculiar to the city ; 
the city nursery ; our historic trees. Teach native ever- 
greeens and the commonest ones found in parks. 

Elementary Forestry — Value of forests as regulators of soil 
water ; knotty and clear lumber ; natural pruning in a 
forest ; nature's method of perpetuating chestnuts, oaks, 
hickories, maples, etc. 

Encourage children to plant seeds of trees. Our forest 
resources ; U. S. Forest Service ; government reservations ; 
lumber companies in forest exploitation ; destructive and 
conservative lumbering ; forest schools at home and abroad. 
Forests of Germany and France compared with U. S. 
Develop sentiment in favor of forestry. 

References— 

Our Native Trees — Harriet Keeler. 



39 

Among Green Trees— J. E. Rogers. 
Trees in Winter— A. O. Huntington. 
Publications of the Forest Service. 

GARDENING 

General oversight of garden and such preparation of gardens 
as cannot be done by lower grades. 

Bulb planting— Refer to 5th grade. 

Eighth grade pupils should understand propagation of 
shrubbery and hedge plants by means of cuttings. Ma- 
terial suitable — privet, lilac, willow, forsythia. Strip off 
leaves ; cut into lengths of six inches ; tie in bundles and 
bury in sand for the winter. If kept outdoors watering is 
not necessary. Cannas planted by 7th grade pupils should 
be cared for in the fall by the 8th grade pupils. 

THE LAWN 

Special work for the grade. 

Method of making a good lawn; fall work; spring work; 
care of the lawn. Urge care of lawns at home. 

References — 

Lawns and Lawn Making— Scribner. 

A reprint from Year Book, Dept, of Agriculture, 1897. 

L. H. Bailey — Garden Making. 

Simple principles of landscape gardening as laid down by L. 
H. Bailey in Garden Making. Children should observe 
and report on good and bad examples of landscape art. 
Emphasize differences between planting in parks and that 
suitable for homes. Use pictures freely. 

Garden Magazine. 

Suburban Life. 

Country Life in America. 



40 

Spring. 

Review all trees that class was familiar with in fall. This 
may be done incidentally, having branches in the school- 
room and quickly reviewing in odd moments. 

BIRDS 

Review all birds taught in lower grades. 

Bird calendar. Encourage interest in bird study. Methods 
of attracting birds around homes. Encourage membership 
in Audubon Society. Discourage egg collecting and wear- 
ing of plumage. Read game and bird laws. Discuss their 
purpose. Teach obedience to them. 

WILD FLOWERS 

Keep calendar as in grades below. Note family likenesses in 
following, thus bringing out the fact that there are plant 
families : 

Crowfoot — buttercup, columbine, hepatica, rue anemone. 

Rose — plum, cherry, peach, strawberry, cinquefoil, 
apple, pear, etc. 

Pea — sweet pea, locust, Judas tree. 

Violet — common, bird's foot, white, yellow. 

Mustard — Winter cress or yellow rocket, cabbage, shep- 
herd's purse, dentaria, pepper grass, sweet alyssum, 
candy tuft. 

Specimens mentioned above are the commonest. By 
inductive teaching let children discover common 
characteristics of families. 

HOME GARDENS 

Emphasize principles of landscape gardening and care of 
lawns. 



Elementary Physics. 

SIXTH A. 

MATTER 

(a) Definition: "Anything that occupies space." 
Derive this definition by showing that it is impossible 

to make one more specific that will include all 
known kinds of matter. 
Is matter ever invisible? Show experimentally that 
air, which is invisible, occupies space and thus prove 
that matter may be invisible. 

(b) Forms or states of matter. 

Make classification into solids, liquids and gases using 
earth, ocean and air as types. 

Illustrate changes from one state to another by melt- 
ing and freezing of ice, evaporation and condensa- 
tion of water and other substances. 

Show application of the principles in the formation of 
rain, snow and ice ; moulding and casting of metals. 

Note that a change of temperature is necessary to 
effect a change from one state to another. 

Compare gases with liquids and solids as to per- 
manency of shape and size. 

(c) Properties of matter. 

Illustrate some of the physical properties of matter 
by the examination of common substances, such as 
glass, wax, whalebone, blotting paper, lead, rubber 
and chalk. 

Show that the diversified uses of matter result from 
the many different properties which its different 
forms possess. 



42 

SIXTH B. 



GRAVITATION 



(a) Its commonest applications and the story of its dis- 

covery. 

(b) Units of measure- — compare pound with kilogram. 

(c) Law, stated qualitatively. 

(d) How the kind of matter or the interposition of sub- 

stances affects the operation of the law. 

(e) Line of direction ; the plumbline ; its use to the builder. 

(f) Center of mass; how determined in regular and ir- 

regular homogeneous substances. 

(g) Equilibrium; stable, unstable and neutral. 

Its application in the construction of sail boats, load- 
ing of wagons, etc. 
(h) Pendulum ; show by simple experiment that the vibra- 
tion is dependent upon the length and independent 
of the material used. Show application of prin- 
cipal in construction of a clock. 

References — 

Higgins' First Science Book, Chapter I. 
Avery's Elements of Natural Philosophy. Sees. 

II, IV. 
Woodhill's Simple Experiments in Physics. 
Other works on Physics. 
Observation Blanks in Physics — American Book 

Co. 
First Course in Physics — Millilken and Gale. 
Experimental Physics — W. A. Stone. 
Introduction to Physical Science — Gage. 
Elements of Physics — Fisher and Patterson. 
Real Things in Nature — E. S. Flolden. 



43 

SEVENTH A. 

FLUID PRESSURE 

(a) Define fluid. Contrast matter in fluid state with 

matter in solid state and show basis of classification 
of matter into solids and fluids. 
Show further classification of fluids into liquids and 
gases. 

(b) Liquid pressure. Water as type. Compare solids and 

liquids with respect to their ability to transmit 
pressure. 

Show relation of the downward pressure of both 
liquids and solids to their weight. 

Derive law for transmission of pressure in liquids, 
experimentally. 

Show application of law in the leaky hose, in the lawn 
fountain, in the hydrostatic press, construction of 
bridge piers, dams, etc. Show the relation of the 
different surfaces of a liquid in communicating 
vessels. Show application of this principle of sur- 
face level in liquids in the springs of nature and the 
city water systems ; coffee pot, teakettle, etc. 

(c) Buoyancy and floating bodies. 

Find the loss of weight of a heavy regular solid im- 
mersed in water. How does this loss in weight 
compare with the weight of a volume of water equal 
to the volume of the solid? Account for this loss 
of weight .by application of law for transmission of 
pressure in liquids. 

Show application of the principle of buoyancy in the 
diver's suit. 

What happens when the loss of weight equals the 
weight of the solid? When is it greater than the 
weight of the solid? 

Show application in the construction of ships. 



44 

(d) Atmospheric Pressure. 
Air as a type. 

i. Show with a simple pressure guage that air as 
well as water transmits pressure equally in all 
directions. 

2. With a mercury barometer or a lift pump meas- 

ure an atmospheric pressure. 

3. Show application of the principal of the pressure 

of gases in the air pump, the pop gun, the 
siphon, force and lift pumps, bicycle and auto- 
mobile tire. 



45 

SEVENTH B. 

MACHINES 

(a) Lever. 

With a yard stick show uses of the lever and the rela- 
tion between the power and weight and power 
arm and weight arm. 

Derive the law and classification of the lever. 

Show application of principle in the crowbar, the well 
sweep, the bones of the body, shears, nut cracker, 
hammer, derrick and other machines. 

(b) Pulley. 

( i ) Single fixed pulley. 

Show advantages gained by the use of this machine. 

Ascertain relation between power and weight. 

Show application in the hay fork. 
(2) Single movable pulley. 

Show advantage gained by the use of this machine 
and relation between power and weight. 

Derive law for the single pulley. 

Show uses of pulley. 

(c) Wheel and axle. 

Show relation between power and weight. What ad- 
vantage is gained by the use of the wheel and axle ? 
Compare the wheel and axle in principle with the 
lever. Derive law of wheel and axle. Show appli- 
cation in the capstan, pilot wheel and windlass. 

Derive general law of machines. 

References — 

Higgin's First Science Book, Chap. II, III. 
Avery's Elements of Natural Philosophy. 
Woodhill's Simple Experiments in. Physics. 
Other works on Physics. 



46 

EIGHTH A. 

SOUND 

Production, transmission, velocity, reflection, and pith. 

(a) Production. 

Sound a tuning fork and by means of pith balls or a 
vessel of water show that the prongs are in a state 
of vibration. 

Illustrate further that sounding bodies are in a state 
of vibration by the use of piano strings, Jew's-harp, 
stretched rubber bands, hand bell and graphophone. 

(b) Transmission. 

Exhaust an air receiver in which is placed an electric 
bell connected with a battery. As the air becomes 
rarer note the diminution of sound until finally the 
bell becomes inaudible. What does this prove as to 
the necessity of a medium between the sounding 
body and the ear for the transmission of sound ^ 
This experiment can be made in the laboratory of 
any high school. Teachers who are not able to 
make arrangements to have their classes witness its 
performance may omit the experiment. 

Illustrate by use of the acoustic telephone, by scratch- 
ing on the ends of long bars of wood and iron and 
by tapping on the sides of a tub while the ears are 
under water that solids and liquids are needed for 
the transmission of sounds as well as gases. 

Illustration : The buried miner Hicks communicated 
with those above ground by means of a metal pipe. 

(c) Velocity. 

Calculate the velocity of sound per second by noting 
the time between the flash and the report of a gun, 
or the escape of steam and the sounding of the 



47 

whistle on a locomotive ; the gun and locomotive 
being at known distances from the observer. 
With this velocity ascertained, calculate the distance 
of a discharge of lightning by noting the time 
between the flash of lightning and the peal of 
thunder. 

(d) Reflection. 

Place a watch in front of the center of a concave re- 
flector, moving it to and from the reflector on the 
same line until the maximum sound is reached. 
Note the effect of the reflector on the magnitude of 
sound. 

Further illustrate the reflection of sound by echoes 
produced by walls, cliffs, surfaces of water, 
whispering galleries. Call attention to the echoes 
in the dome of the Capitol and statuary hall. 

(e) Pitch. 

With two tuning forks of a known number of vibra- 
tions each note the difference of pitch. 

What is your conclusion of the relation between pitch 
and the number of vibrations? What is your con- 
clusion of the relation of strings and their vibra- 
tions ? 

HEAT 

Sources, temperature, effects, transference. Applications 
and illustrations. 

(a) Sources. 

Show experimentally that friction, percussion, com- 
pression, chemical action and combustion and the 
sun are sources of heat. 

The following material will supply the necessary ap- 
paratus for these experiments : a convex lens or 
reading glass, file, soft iron nail, hammer, piece of 



48 

sheet iron, a small piece of unslaked lime, a bicycle 
with pump. 
Supplement these experients with other illustrations 
from the machine shop, the laboratory, or elsewhere, 
showing the production of heat. 

(b) Temperature. 

Take three vessels, the first containing water as hot 
as the hand can bear, the second containing warm 
water, and the third containing cold water. Put 
the right hand into the first vessel and the left hand 
into the third, holding them there for a short time. 
Then put both into the second vessel and note the 
effect on both hands. Do both hands indicate the 
same temperature? Can bodily sensation be relied 
upon to determine temperature? Repeat the ex- 
periment, using two thermometers instead of the 
hands. Do the thermometers read alike when they 
are inthe second vessel? 

Discuss construction, kinds and uses of thermometers. 

(c) Effects. 

Carefully measure a long iron nail or rod. Heat and 

measure again. Is it longer or shorter? 
Fill a bottle with water and fit a stopper tightly into 

its mouth. Heat the water and note the result. 

Allow both nail and water to cool again and note 

the result. 
What do the experiments show as to the effects of 

heat on solids and liquids? 
Note the application of this principle in the building 

of guns, bridges, boilers, and the setting of wagon 

tires, etc. 
Exception : Allow a small bottle filled with water to 

freeze solid. Note the effect. 
Illustrate the application of the principle of expansion 



49 

of freezing water in the bursting of the water pipe 

and the floating of ice. 
Ebullition and evaporation. Boil a vessel of water 

continuously for thirty minutes. Note the effect 

on the quantity of liquid. 
Set the same vessel containing an equal amount of 

water aside in the room for two weeks. Note again 

the change in the quantity of liquid. 
Pour a little alcohol or ether on the hand and note 

the effect on the temperature. 
Show the application of the principle of slow and 
- rapid evaporation in the process of distillation, in 

the formation of rain and the manufacture of ice. 
(d) Transference of heat. 

Show conductivity of heat by metals and convection 

by liquids and gases, by simple experiments, using 

as material iron and copper wire, test tube, water 

and saw dust. Show application of principle in the 

boiling of water, heating of buildings, etc. 

References — 

Higgin's First Science Book, Chapters IV and V. 
Woodhill's Simple Experiments in Physics. 
Avery's Natural Philosophy. 
Other works on Physics. 



50 

EIGHTH B. 

LIGHT 

Sources, propagation, intensity, reflections, and refactions. 

(a) Sources. 

Try to see the filament of an incandescent lamp before 
and after a current of electricity is passed through 
it. Distinguish between luminous and illuminated 
bodies. How do you see other objects in the room? 
Give examples of other luminous bodies. 

(b) Propagation. 

Admit a ray of sunlight into a darkened room 
through a small hole in one of the curtains. Dis- 
tribute chalk dust in its path. 

Interpose an opaque screen between the eye and an 
object. Can you see the object? 

What conclusion do you draw from these experi- 
ments as to direction of propagation of light? 

Place a lighted candle about a yard from a white wall 
in a darkened room. Between the candle and the 
wall hold a card containing a small pin hole. Com- 
pare the image of the flame on the screen with the 
flame in position and size. 

Bore a hole, about an inch in diameter, in the center 
of the bottom of a chalk box. Cover the top of the 
box with oiled white paper. Paste over the open- 
ing in the bottom a smooth piece of tinfoil and 
carefully make a pin hole in the middle of it. Ad- 
mit the light from a brightly illuminated or 
luminous body into the box through the small hole 
in the tinfoil. Discuss the relation of the image 
and the object as to size and position and distance 
from the opening in the tinfoil. Discuss applica- 
tion of principle in the eye and the photographic 
camera. 



5i 

(c) Intensity. 

Place a screen six inches square midway between a 
white wall and a lighted candle whose distance 
from the wall is two feet. The screen should be 
parallel to the wall. Compare the area of the 
shadow on the wall with the area of the screen. 
Repeat the experiment using other distances from 
the wall for both screen and candle. 

The quantity of light that illuminates the screen 
would illuminate what part of the wall if the screen 
were removed? Would the illumination of the wall 
be less or more intense than was the illumination 
of the screen? Derive law for relation between 
distance and intensity of illumination. 

(d) Reflection. 

With a small mirror reflect a beam of light coming 
into a darkened room through a small opening in 
the shutter or shade. Trace the path of the incident 
and reflected ray by means of chalk dust. Com- 
pare the angle the incident ray makes with a line 
perpendicular to the surface of the mirror at the 
point of contact of the ray of light with the angle 
the reflected ray makes with the same line. What 
is the relation between these two angles? 

Illustrate the application of this principle in the con- 
struction and use of the kaleidoscope, heliograph 
and heliostat and cause of twilight. Place an ob- 
ject between two parallel mirrors and note the 
multiplication of images. Explain. 

(e) Refraction. 

Place a small metallic object in the bottom of a cup or 
basin and stand so that you can just see over the 
edges of the vessel. While some one pours water 
into the vessel observe the apparent change in the 
position of the object and the depth of the water. 



52 

Make diagram showing path of ray of light from 
the object to the eye. Harmonize this phenomena 
with the law for the propagation of light. 

Note appearance of a straight stick in a clear body of 
water. Explain. 

With a convex lens, an ordinary reading glass, or one 
of the lenses from a pair of spectacles will answer, 
focus on a sheet of paper the light from the sun or 
a lighted candle. What effect on the direction of 
the propagation of light has the lens? Examine a 
page of your book through the lens. Explain. 

Discuss illustrations of the principles of refraction 
of light in the construction and use of the simple 
microscope, camera, human eye, eyeglass, stereop- 
ticon and other optical instruments. 

Admit a beam of sunlight into a darkened room, 
allow it to pass through an ordinary glass prism, 
and catch the refracted beam on the wall. Note 
color of beam. 

Collect the refracted beam, immediately after it 
passes through the prism, with a convex lens and 
note the color of beam. 

What conclusion do you draw from these' experi- 
ments as to the composition of sunlight? 



MAGNETISM 



Suspend by a silk thread in a paper stirrup a bar 
magnet. Bring alternately the N and S end of 
another bar magnet to each end of the suspended 
magnet. Note result and derive law for attraction 
and repulsion of magnets. 

Suspend sewing or knitting needle in the same man- 
ner as in the previous experiment and bring each 
end of a bar magnet to each end of the needle al- 
ternately. Is the needle a magnet? 



53 

Now rub the needle from one end to the other several 
times with the north end of the bar magnet. Again 
suspending the needle bring each end of the bar 
magnet to each end of the needle and note its be- 
havior. Is the needle a magnet? Mark its north 
and south ends. Repeat the experiment with an- 
other needle, using the south end of the bar magnet 
in rubbing the needle. Compare the two suspended 
needle magnets with relation to their polarity. 

Describe method of making a permanent magnet. 

Heat one of the needle magnets until red, and when 
cool test for magnetic properties. Give conclusions 
as to effect of heat on a magnet. Note the direction 
in which the suspended magnetic needle lies when 
it comes to rest. Explain. 

Discuss application of the magnetic needle in the 
compass. 

Place a bar magnet on a sheet of paper and cover with 
iron filings or small tacks. Lift the magnet and 
observe where the attraction for the iron filings is 
greatest. 

Sprinkle iron filings over a sheet of paper under 
which is a bar magnet. Tap the paper gently. 
Notice closely the way the filings arrange them- 
selves. Make a drawing of the arrangement of the 
filings. Place a small pocket compass in different 
positions on the paper in the magnetic field and 
note the direction in which the needle points. 

Indicate these directions on your map. Repeat the 
experiment, using cardboard, wood, and glass in- 
stead of paper. Does the force of the magnet act 
through these substances as well as through paper? 

Break a needle magnet and test each part for all the 
properties of a permanent magnet. Conclusions. 



54 

Use of the magnet in collecting metal substances 
from bins in the large elevators. 

STATIC ELECTRICITY 

Rub a glass rod with a dry silk cloth and immediately 
bring it near some small bits of paper or a sus- 
pended pith ball. Repeat the experiment, using 
a stick of sealing wax and a woolen cloth in place of 
the glass rod and silk cloth. Note phenomena 'n 
each case. All material used must be dry. The 
power generated in certain substances by friction of 
attracting and repelling objects is termed frictionai 
electricity. 

(i) Two kinds of electrification. 

Rub a glass rod with silk and suspend it in a stirrup 
made of a hairpin, by a silk thread. 

Electrify another glass rod in the same manner and 
suspend it so that the ends of both rods are near 
each other. Is there attraction or repulsion? Was 
the electrification of both rods the same? 

Electrify a glass rod with silk and a stick of sealing 
wax with flannel and bring their ends near to each 
in the same manner as in the last experiment. Is 
there attraction or repulsion between the rods? 

Calling the electricity developed with silk on the glass 
positive, and that developed with the flannel on 
the sealing wax negative, derive law of attraction 
and repulsion of electrified bodies. 

Repeat the experiment, using other subjects. Il- 
lustrations : Combing the hair, rubbing the hair, 
rubbing cats' fur, flash of lightning. 

The consideration of current electricity is omitted 
from this course because it is not possible, at this 
time, to supply the apparatus necessary for such 
study. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



General References. 

A few familiar flowers Margaret Warner Morley 

According to seasons Mrs. Frances Theodora Parsons 

Agriculture for Beginners Burkett, Storms, and Hill 

Corn plants, their uses and ways .... Charles Sprague Sargent 
Familiar trees and their leaves . . Ferdinand Schuyler Mathews 

From seed to leaf Jane H. Newall 

How plants behave Asa Gray 

How plants grow Asa Grav 

How to know the wild flowers Mrs. William Starr Dana 

Lessons with plants Liberty Hyde Bailey 

Little wanderers Margaret Warner Morley 

Manual of botany Asa Gray 

Manual of the trees of North America 

Charles Sprague Sargent 

Nature stories for young readers M. Florence Bass 

Nature study and life Clifton Fremont Hodge 

Nature study and the child Charles B. Scott 

Nature study in elementary schools 

Mrs. Lucy Langdon Wilson 

Nature's garden Neltje Blanchan 

Our native trees and how to identify them 

Harriet Louise Keeler 

Plants and their children Mrs. Frances Theodora Parsons 

Sea stories for wonder eyes Mrs. A. S. Hardy 

Seed babies Margaret Warner Morley 

Seed dispersal William James Beal 

Seed travelers Clarence Moores Weed 

Special method in elementary science 

Charles Alexander McMurry 

Studv of trees in winter Annis Oakes Huntington 



56 

The essentials of botany Charles E. Bessey 

The fairyland of flowers Mara L. Pratt 

The plant baby and its friends Kate Louise Brown 

The story of the plants : Grant Allen 

Trees, shrubs and vines H. E. Parkhurst 

Animals. 

Cats and dogs James Johounot 

Domesticated animals Nathaniel Southgate Shaler 

Four-footed Americans Mabel Osgood Wright 

Habits and behavior of animals John Burroughs 

In brook and bayou Clara Kern Bayliss 

Life and her children Mrs. Arabella Burkley Fisher 

Lives of the hunted Ernest Thompson Seton 

Our home pets Olive Thorne Miller 

Squirrels and other fur bearers John Burroughs 

The kindred of the wild Charles G. D. Roberts 

Wild beasts J. Hampden Porter 

Wild neighbors Ernest Ingerso?l 

Wilderness babies Julia Augusta Schwartz 

Winners in life's race Mrs. Arabella Burkley Fisher 

Birds. 

A charm of birds Rose Porter 

Bird life Frank Chapman 

Birdom Leander Keyser 

Bird homes Arthur Radclyffe Dugmore 

Bird ways Olive Thorne Miller 

Birds in the bush Bradford Torrey 

Birds through an opera glass Florence Merriam 

Citizen bird Mabel Osgood Wright and Elliott Coues 

Everyday birds Bradford Torrey 

First book of birds Olive Thorne Miller 

Hawks and owls from the standpoint of a farmer 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 



57 

Home studies in nature Mary Treat 

How to attract the birds Neltje Blanchan 

In bird land Leander Keyser 

In nesting time Olive Thorne Miller 

Little brother of the air Olive Thorne Miller 

Some common birds in their relation to agriculture 

Foster Ellenborough Beai 

Stories of bird life T. Gilbert Pearson 

The clerk of the woods Bradford Torrey 

The common crow U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 

The woodpeckers Fannie Hardy Eckstorm 

Insects. 

Among the moths and butterflies Julia P. Ballard 

Ants, bees, wasps John Lubbock Avebury 

Entomology for beginners Alpheus Spring Packard 

Everyday butterflies Samuel Hubbard Scudder 

Eye-spv William Hamilton Gibson 

How to keep bees Anna Botsford Cornstock 

Insect folk Margaret Warner Morley 

Insect life John Henry Cornstock 

T nsects Alpheus Hyatt and J. M. Arms 

Insects John Lubbock Avebury 

Life histories of American insects Clarence Moores Weed 

Natural history J- J- Wood 

On certain grass-eating insects Ephriam Porterfelt 

Romance of the insect world L. N. Badenoch 

Sharp eves William Hamilton Gibson 

Tenants' of an old farm Henry Christopher McCook 

The butterfly book William Jacob Holland 

The hive and the honey bee Lorenzo Lorrain Langstroth 

The insect world Clarence Moores Weed 

The life of the bee Maurice Maeterlinck 

The population of the old pear tree E. Bruyssel 

Wasps, social and solitary G. W. and E. G. Peckham 



5« 

Gardening. 

Bulletin oi the Department of Agriculture, school gar- 
dens L. C. Corbett 

Bulletins 160 and 204 

Office of Experiment Station, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 
Children's gardens for school and home. ..Louis Klein Miller 

Flowers of Japan and art of floral arrangement J. Condu 

I low to make a vegetable garden Edith Loring Fullerton 

How to make school gardens H. D. Hemenway 

Gardening for beginners E. T. Cook 

Garden making Liberty Hyde Bailey 

Nature study Frederick L. Holtz 

School gardening and nature study in English rural schools 
and in London Susan B. Sipe 






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